The 1900 CHT Manual: A Protective Armor for the Jumma People, and Why Bangladesh Wants It Gone

Introduction

In the long history of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, few documents have shaped the lives of the Jumma peoples as much as the 1900 CHT Regulation, popularly known as the CHT Manual. Introduced during British colonial rule, it was not perfect, but it gave the Indigenous peoples of the hills a legal framework that recognized their distinct identity, land rights, and governance.

Today, the CHT Manual is under threat. The Government of Bangladesh has repeatedly sought to amend or abolish it, claiming modernization — but for the Jumma communities, its removal would mean the final erosion of their legal protection.

What Was the 1900 CHT Manual?

• Introduced by the British in 1900, the Manual legally recognized the unique character of the Hill Tracts as distinct from the Bengali plains.
• It created a system of traditional governance through Circle Chiefs, Headmen, and Karbaris, who oversaw local justice, land use, and community affairs.
• It established the CHT as a “Excluded Area” where non-Indigenous settlement was restricted, protecting Jumma land ownership.
• It preserved the system of communal land tenure (land belonged to the community, not individuals) — vital for jhum cultivation.

In short, the Manual acted like a shield: it wasn’t designed to empower, but it did protect Jumma people from being overrun by outsiders.

Why It Was Protective Armor

Land Rights Safeguard

By restricting outsiders from buying land, it ensured the Jumma could hold on to their ancestral valleys and hills.

Recognition of Traditional Authority

Chiefs and Headmen were recognized as legal administrators, strengthening Indigenous governance.

Cultural Preservation

Limiting migration from the plains reduced forced assimilation and protected languages, customs, and rituals.

Buffer Against Exploitation

As a frontier zone, the Manual functioned as a barrier against colonial and later state overreach into Indigenous lives.

Why Bangladesh Wants to Abolish It

Since 1971, successive governments in Bangladesh have viewed the CHT Manual as a barrier to integration. Their motives include:

• Land and Resource Access — Abolishing the Manual clears the way for Bengali settlers, corporations, and military projects to access land in the hills.
• Centralized Control — The Manual grants power to local chiefs and councils. Dhaka has often sought to weaken this autonomy.
• Nation-State Ideology — By promoting a singular Bengali identity, the state sees the Manual’s recognition of Indigenous governance as a challenge to “national unity.”
• Development Pretext — Governments argue the Manual is “outdated” and hinders modernization. In reality, removing it accelerates land grabbing and militarization.

The Ongoing Battle

• 1997 Peace Accord promised to uphold Indigenous rights, but the Manual remains under constant legal and political attack.
• Amendments have chipped away at its protections, undermining chiefs’ authority and easing restrictions on non-Indigenous settlement.
• For the Jumma, abolishing the Manual would mean losing the last legal recognition of their distinct identity and land rights.

Conclusion

The 1900 CHT Manual was never perfect — it was born out of colonial control. But paradoxically, it gave the Jumma people something rare in South Asia: a legal armor to protect their land and culture.

Today, as Bangladesh moves to dismantle it, the Jumma face the prospect of standing unprotected in the face of land grabs, forced assimilation, and cultural erasure.

To abolish the Manual is not modernization — it is dispossession disguised as reform.

 

Tears of the Dam: How Kaptai Dam Displaced the Jumma People and Left Generational Scars

Introduction

In the early 1960s, the government of Pakistan embarked on what was hailed as a milestone of “modern development” — the construction of the Kaptai Dam in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. The hydroelectric project promised electricity and industrial growth.

But behind the statistics of power generation lies a story of loss, displacement, and grief. For the Jumma peoples of the CHT, Kaptai was not just a dam. It was a flood that drowned ancestral villages, fertile lands, and sacred spaces — leaving behind trauma that continues across generations.

A Dam of Displacement

• Built between 1957 and 1963 with American aid, the Kaptai Dam submerged nearly 54,000 acres of arable land.
• About 100,000 people — predominantly Chakma and other Jumma groups — were forced out of their homes.
• Around 40% of the Chakma population lost everything: homes, farms, temples, and burial grounds.
• No proper rehabilitation program was implemented. Compensation, where given, was inadequate or corruptly distributed.

Families who had lived for centuries along the fertile valleys of the Karnafuli River suddenly became landless refugees in their own homeland.

Exodus Across Borders

The displacement caused by Kaptai Dam did not stop at the CHT:

• Thousands of Chakma fled into India — settling in Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, and Tripura.
• Others crossed into Myanmar.
• Entire communities were split across borders, weakening cultural ties and creating stateless generations who remain marginalized to this day.

The dam, meant to generate electricity for the cities, instead generated a diaspora of pain.

Generational Agony

For those who were displaced, the scars have lasted decades:

• Loss of Ancestral Land: Farmland is not just economics; it is identity. Losing it meant losing a piece of self.
• Cycle of Poverty: Families pushed to barren lands or urban fringes faced poverty that persisted for generations.
• Fragmented Community: With large numbers scattered in India and Myanmar, cultural unity was weakened.
• Psychological Trauma: Survivors recall the waters swallowing entire villages. Even decades later, the dam symbolizes betrayal.

The Contrast of Power

Ironically, while the Kaptai Dam displaced 100,000 people, the electricity it generated barely benefited the CHT itself. Most of the power was sent to industrial zones and urban centers, leaving displaced Jumma communities in darkness — both literally and figuratively.

A Symbol of Broken Promises

The Kaptai tragedy is not just a chapter of history; it is a living wound. Even today:

• Displaced families struggle without land rights.
• The diaspora in India still faces statelessness and exclusion.
• Younger generations inherit the pain of their grandparents — born into loss they never personally witnessed, yet still forced to carry it.

The dam, once marketed as “progress,” became instead a monument to marginalization.

Conclusion

The Kaptai Dam may have lit up cities, but it drowned the future of an entire people. For the Jumma, it was more than a dam; it was a betrayal that reshaped their destiny.

The tears of the dam still flow — not in the river, but in the memories of those who lost their homes, in the poverty of displaced families, and in the fractured identity of generations scattered across borders.

Until the voices of the displaced are heard, and justice addressed, the waters of Kaptai will remain forever stained with sorrow.

The 1997 CHT Peace Accord: A Promise Betrayed

The Broken Promises of the CHT Peace Accord

Introduction

On December 2, 1997, the Government of Bangladesh and the Parbatya Chattagram Jana Samhati Samiti (PCJSS) signed the Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord. It was hailed as a “historic breakthrough” that would end two decades of conflict between the state and Indigenous Jumma peoples.

For the Jumma, who had endured displacement, militarization, and systematic settlement programs, the Accord sparked hope of recognition, autonomy, and dignity. But over 25 years later, those promises remain largely unfulfilled. Instead of peace, many feel the Accord has become a symbol of betrayal.

What the Accord Promised

The Peace Accord was built around several key commitments:

Regional Autonomy

• Creation of a Regional Council with authority over land, administration, and development.
• Strengthening of three Hill District Councils to allow self-governance.

Land Rights and Dispute Resolution

• Establishment of a Land Commission to resolve land disputes caused by state-sponsored Bengali settlement and the Kaptai Dam displacement.

Demilitarization

• Gradual withdrawal of temporary military camps from the CHT.
• Return of lands occupied by the military and settlers to rightful owners.

Rehabilitation of Displaced People

• Safe return of refugees from India and internally displaced families.

Recognition of Jumma Identity

• Indirectly promised cultural and political acknowledgment of Indigenous peoples within a pluralistic Bangladesh.

What Actually Happened

Despite initial celebrations, the Accord quickly stalled in implementation:

Regional and District Councils

Councils exist only on paper with limited or no real power. Decision-making is still dominated by Dhaka-appointed administrators.

Land Commission Paralysis

The Land Commission was formed but made almost no progress due to lack of rules, political pressure, and resistance from settlers and local elites. Land grabbing continues.

Militarization Remains

Although some camps were withdrawn, the CHT is still one of the most militarized regions in Bangladesh. New camps and surveillance posts have even been added in some areas.

Bengali Settlement Continues

State-backed migration of Bengali settlers has not been reversed. In many cases, settlers retain control of seized Indigenous land.

Displaced Families Unsettled

Thousands of Jumma families who lost land to the Kaptai Dam or settlers have not been adequately rehabilitated. Many remain landless or marginalized.

Identity Denied

The Constitution of Bangladesh still refuses to recognize the Jumma as “Indigenous,” labeling them instead as “tribal” or “ethnic minorities.” This denies them international legal protections.

Why the Jumma Call It a Betrayal

For many Jumma people, the Peace Accord has functioned less as a roadmap for peace and more as a political instrument:

• It pacified international criticism without fundamentally changing state policy.
• It split Indigenous politics by creating rifts between groups that accepted the Accord (PCJSS) and those who rejected it (UPDF).
• It left the community disillusioned — they laid down arms in good faith, but the state did not honor its commitments.

In effect, the Accord neutralized Jumma armed resistance while allowing the structures of militarization, settlement, and cultural erasure to continue.

The Present Reality

Today, the CHT is still marked by:

• Land disputes where settlers, backed by military and political influence, hold Indigenous land.
• Periodic violence and communal attacks, often targeting villages and temples.
• Youth frustration as promises of self-rule and recognition remain broken.

The Peace Accord, rather than solving the crisis, has become a reminder of broken promises.

Conclusion

The 1997 CHT Peace Accord could have been a foundation for justice and reconciliation. Instead, its half-hearted implementation has deepened mistrust.

For the Jumma people, it stands as proof that peace without justice is not peace at all. Until the Accord’s core promises — land rights, demilitarization, and recognition — are genuinely implemented, the dream of dignity and autonomy in the Chittagong Hill Tracts will remain unfulfilled.

Historical Background of the Jumma People in the Chittagong Hill Tracts

The Historical Journey of the Jumma Peoples in the Chittagong Hill Tracts

Introduction

The Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT), located in southeastern Bangladesh, is home to a diverse group of Indigenous peoples collectively known as the Jumma. The term “Jumma” comes from “jhum,” the traditional method of shifting cultivation practiced by these communities for centuries. The Jumma include eleven main groups, the largest being the Chakma, Marma, and Tripura, alongside smaller groups such as the Mro, Bawm, Khumi, Khyang, Pangkhu, Chak, Lushai, and Tanchangya.

Their history is one of resilience — preserving identity, culture, and autonomy while facing waves of external influence, colonization, and political marginalization.

Early Origins

The Jumma peoples trace their ancestry to Tibeto-Burman and Indo-Mongoloid roots, migrating centuries ago from regions that today span Myanmar, India, and Tibet.

They brought with them rich languages, oral traditions, and distinct religious practices — with Buddhism, Hinduism, and animism interwoven into their way of life.

For centuries, the hill communities maintained their own village-based governance systems, with chiefs and headmen managing land, justice, and cultural life.

Pre-Colonial and Regional Rule

Historically, the Chakma and Marma established chieftaincies that maintained tributary relationships with regional powers such as the Arakanese kingdom and later the Mughal Empire.

Despite external pressures, the CHT remained relatively autonomous, as its rugged terrain and distinct culture set it apart from the Bengali lowlands.

The British, after consolidating power in Bengal, officially annexed the CHT in 1860, marking the start of formal colonial control.

British Colonial Era (1860–1947)

The British declared the CHT a “Excluded Area” under the Government of India Act (1935), recognizing its distinct character.

• Land laws protected Indigenous ownership, restricting migration from the plains.
• The colonial administration worked through chiefs and headmen, allowing relative self-governance while exploiting forest resources.
• This period also deepened Buddhist, Christian, and missionary influences, shaping Jumma religious and educational life.

Partition and Pakistan Era (1947–1971)

In 1947, the CHT was controversially awarded to Pakistan during Partition, despite being 98% non-Muslim at the time.

• Pakistan revoked the “Excluded Area” status in 1964, opening the door to Bengali settlement and land grabbing.
• The construction of the Kaptai Dam (1960s) submerged 40% of the best arable land, displacing about 100,000 people, mostly Chakma, without adequate compensation. Many fled to India and Myanmar.

Post-1971 Bangladesh and Struggles for Rights

After Bangladesh’s independence in 1971, the Jumma hoped for constitutional recognition of their Indigenous identity. Instead, the state emphasized a homogenous Bengali nationalism.

This led to decades of political unrest and armed conflict, spearheaded by the Shanti Bahini, the armed wing of the Parbatya Chattagram Jana Samhati Samiti (PCJSS).

The conflict saw widespread militarization, human rights abuses, and settlement programs that further marginalized Indigenous communities.

The 1997 CHT Peace Accord promised limited autonomy, recognition of land rights, and demilitarization. However, many provisions remain unimplemented, keeping tensions alive.

Culture and Identity Today

Despite challenges, the Jumma peoples have preserved vibrant languages, weaving traditions, dances, and festivals such as Biju, Sangrai, and Boisuk.

Buddhism remains central for many communities, while others practice Christianity, Hinduism, or traditional animist faiths.

Diaspora communities in India, Myanmar, and beyond continue to carry forward cultural identity while raising global awareness of the struggles in the CHT.

Conclusion

The historical background of the Jumma peoples in the Chittagong Hill Tracts is a story of endurance. From ancient migration to colonial annexation, from displacement to ongoing struggles for autonomy, the Jummas remain a distinct Indigenous people striving to protect their land, culture, and rights.

The past is not only history — it is the foundation of their continued demand for justice, recognition, and dignity in the modern state of Bangladesh.